Romans 1

Key Terms

Translator Notes

1. The Greek doulos means 'slave' or 'bondservant,' not merely 'servant.' It carries connotations of total ownership and devotion. We render 'servant' to maintain the dignity of the self-designation while noting the stronger Greek sense. The SBLGNT reads 'Christ Jesus' (Christou Iesou) rather than the KJV's 'Jesus Christ' — the order varies in manuscripts.
2. The verb aphorismenos ('set apart') is a perfect passive participle suggesting a divine action completed in the past with continuing effect. Paul sees his entire life as divinely directed toward gospel proclamation.

Translator Notes

1. The verb proepengeilato ('promised beforehand') is a compound emphasizing prior commitment. Paul establishes from the outset that the gospel is not an innovation but the fulfillment of Israel's scriptural hope. The phrase 'holy Scriptures' (graphais hagiais) refers to what Christians call the Old Testament.

Key Terms

Translator Notes

1. The phrase kata sarka ('according to the flesh') limits the Davidic descent to the human, physical dimension — setting up the contrast with kata pneuma ('according to the Spirit') in verse 4. The Greek genomenou ('having become, born') from ginomai emphasizes the incarnation: the Son entered into human lineage.

Key Terms

Translator Notes

1. The verb horisthentos ('declared, appointed, designated') does not mean Jesus became the Son at the resurrection but that the resurrection publicly demonstrated and vindicated his identity. The phrase pneuma hagiosynes ('Spirit of holiness') is unusual — it may be a Semitic idiom for the Holy Spirit or may refer to Christ's own spirit of holiness. We capitalize 'Spirit' as the most likely referent is the Holy Spirit's role in resurrection.

Key Terms

Translator Notes

1. The phrase hypakoēn pisteōs ('obedience of faith') is programmatic for Romans and its meaning is debated — it could mean 'the obedience that is faith,' 'the obedience that comes from faith,' or 'obedience to the faith.' The genitive is likely epexegetical: faith itself is the obedience Paul calls for. The same phrase bookends the letter (cf. 16:26).
2. The word ethnesin ('nations') is the standard Greek term that can mean 'Gentiles' or 'nations.' Paul's apostolic commission is specifically to non-Jewish peoples.

Translator Notes

1. The phrase klētoi Iēsou Christou ('called of Jesus Christ') can be parsed as 'called by Jesus Christ' (genitive of agent) or 'called to belong to Jesus Christ' (possessive genitive). We render the possessive sense, which fits the context of believers' identity. The Roman Christians are included among the nations to whom Paul has been sent.

Translator Notes

1. Paul's greeting combines the standard Greek epistolary greeting (charis, 'grace') with the Hebrew shalom greeting (eirēnē, 'peace'). The word hagiois ('saints, holy ones') does not mean morally perfected people but those set apart by God's call — corresponding to the Hebrew qadosh. Paul places God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ on the same level as the joint source of grace and peace.

Translator Notes

1. The verb katangelletai ('is proclaimed, announced') is stronger than the KJV's 'spoken of' — it implies active, deliberate proclamation. 'The whole world' (holō tō kosmō) is hyperbolic, referring to the Roman Empire and the network of early Christian communities, but it testifies to Rome's strategic importance.

Translator Notes

1. Paul invokes God as witness — a solemn oath formula rooted in Old Testament covenant practice. The verb latreuō ('I serve, worship') is cultic language, used in the Septuagint for priestly and temple service. Paul redefines worship: his liturgical service is gospel proclamation.

Translator Notes

1. The verb euodōthēsomai ('I may be prospered, succeed on my journey') contains the root hodos ('road, way'). Paul's desire to visit Rome has been repeatedly frustrated (cf. 15:22), and he subordinates his travel plans to God's will — a significant qualifier given that his actual arrival in Rome will come as a prisoner (Acts 28).

Translator Notes

1. The word charisma ('gift of grace, spiritual gift') shares the root of charis ('grace'). Paul immediately qualifies this somewhat presumptuous statement in verse 12, showing pastoral sensitivity toward a church he did not found.

Translator Notes

1. Paul corrects the potential impression of verse 11 that he would arrive as a superior dispensing gifts. The compound verb symparaklēthēnai ('to be encouraged together') emphasizes mutuality. Paul acknowledges that he, too, will benefit from the Roman believers' faith.

Translator Notes

1. The formula ou thelō hymas agnoein ('I do not want you to be unaware') is a standard Pauline disclosure formula (cf. 11:25; 1 Corinthians 10:1; 12:1). We render adelphoi as 'brothers and sisters' since the Greek term functioned as an inclusive address for the whole community. Paul does not specify what prevented him — the passive ekōlythēn ('I was prevented') may imply divine hindrance or practical obstacles.

Translator Notes

1. The Greek-barbarian distinction was the fundamental cultural divide of the ancient world: Hellēnes were Greek-speakers, barbaroi were everyone else (the term originated as onomatopoeia for incomprehensible speech — 'bar-bar'). We render barbarois as 'non-Greeks' to avoid the modern connotation of 'barbaric.' Paul's obligation crosses every cultural boundary.

Translator Notes

1. The adjective prothymon ('eager, ready, willing') conveys personal enthusiasm. The verb euangelisasthai ('to proclaim good news') shares the root of euangelion ('gospel'). Paul's eagerness to preach in Rome — the imperial capital — reflects the universal scope of his commission.

Key Terms

Translator Notes

1. The SBLGNT omits 'of Christ' (tou Christou) after 'gospel,' which appears in later manuscripts reflected in the KJV. We follow the critical text. The verb epaischynomai ('I am ashamed') carries social weight — in the honor-shame culture of Rome, the gospel of a crucified Jew would invite ridicule. Paul's 'not ashamed' is an understatement (litotes) meaning 'I am proud of.'
2. The phrase Ioudaiō te prōton kai Hellēni ('to the Jew first and also to the Greek') establishes the salvation-historical priority of Israel that Paul will defend in chapters 9-11, while insisting on the universality of the gospel.

Key Terms

Translator Notes

1. The phrase dikaiosynē theou ('righteousness of God') is the theological center of Romans. The genitive theou can be subjective ('God's own righteousness'), objective ('the righteousness that comes from God'), or both simultaneously. Luther's breakthrough reading — that this is a righteousness God gives, not demands — launched the Reformation.
2. The quotation from Habakkuk 2:4 can be parsed two ways: 'the righteous-by-faith will live' or 'the righteous will live by faith.' Paul likely intends both senses. The Hebrew of Habakkuk reads 'by his faithfulness' (be'emunato), using emunah.
3. [TCR Cross-Reference] Draws on Habakkuk 2:4. Consult the TCR rendering of that passage for the underlying Hebrew and the rationale for key translation choices.

Key Terms

Translator Notes

1. The parallel structure with verse 17 is deliberate: God's righteousness is 'revealed' (apokalyptetai) in the gospel (v. 17), and God's wrath is 'revealed' (apokalyptetai) against sin (v. 18). Both are present realities, not merely future events. The verb katechontōn means 'to hold down, suppress, restrain' — humanity actively suppresses truth, not merely ignores it. The word adikian ('unrighteousness') is the direct negation of dikaiosynē ('righteousness').

Translator Notes

1. The phrase to gnōston tou theou ('what is knowable of God') implies a limited, partial knowledge — not everything about God, but enough to leave humanity without excuse (v. 20). The repetition of phaneron/ephanerōsen ('plain/made plain') emphasizes that this knowledge is not hidden but actively disclosed by God.

Translator Notes

1. Paul employs a deliberate paradox: the 'invisible' (aorata) attributes are 'clearly seen' (kathoratai). The knowledge of God comes through rational reflection on creation (noumena, 'being understood by the mind'), not through mystical experience. The word theiotēs ('divine nature, divinity') differs from theotēs ('deity, godhead') used in Colossians 2:9 — theiotēs refers to divine qualities perceivable in creation, not the full essence of God. The result is that humanity is anapologētous ('without defense, without excuse').

Translator Notes

1. The verb edoxasan ('glorified, honored') connects to the glory exchange in verse 23. The failure is twofold: refusing to honor God and refusing to give thanks. The verb emataiōthēsan ('became futile, empty') echoes the Septuagint's description of idol worship (cf. Jeremiah 2:5; 2 Kings 17:15). The 'heart' (kardia) in biblical usage is the center of thought and will, not primarily emotion.
2. [TCR Cross-Reference] Quotes Jeremiah 2:5. The TCR rendering of that OT passage preserves the Hebrew source text and documents the translation decisions behind it.
3. [TCR Cross-Reference] Quotes 2 Kings 17:15. The TCR rendering of that OT passage preserves the Hebrew source text and documents the translation decisions behind it.

Translator Notes

1. The verb emōranthēsan ('became foolish, were made foolish') is the root of the English 'moron.' The irony is sharp: the pursuit of wisdom apart from acknowledging God produces its opposite. This echoes the wisdom tradition of Proverbs 1:7 ('The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction').
2. [TCR Cross-Reference] Draws on Proverbs 1:7. Consult the TCR rendering of that passage for the underlying Hebrew and the rationale for key translation choices.

Translator Notes

1. The verb ēllaxan ('exchanged') introduces the 'exchange' motif that structures 1:18-32: humanity exchanged God's glory (v. 23), exchanged the truth for a lie (v. 25), and exchanged natural relations (v. 26). The descending list — humans, birds, animals, reptiles — mirrors the creation order of Genesis 1 in reverse, depicting idolatry as de-creation. The language echoes Psalm 106:20 and Jeremiah 2:11 on Israel's own idol worship.
2. [TCR Cross-Reference] References Genesis 1 — the TCR OT rendering of that text provides the Hebrew source and explains the translation decisions involved.
3. [TCR Cross-Reference] References Psalm 106:20 — the TCR OT rendering of that text provides the Hebrew source and explains the translation decisions involved.
4. [TCR Cross-Reference] References Jeremiah 2:11 — the TCR OT rendering of that text provides the Hebrew source and explains the translation decisions involved.

Translator Notes

1. The verb paredōken ('gave over, handed over') is the first of three occurrences (vv. 24, 26, 28) that structure this section. God's wrath is expressed not by active punishment but by allowing human choices to reach their natural consequences — a judicial handing over to the trajectory already chosen. The same verb is used of Christ being 'handed over' to death (4:25; 8:32), creating a profound theological contrast.

Translator Notes

1. The second 'exchange' (metēllaxan): truth for falsehood. The Greek para ton ktisanta ('rather than the Creator') means 'instead of,' not merely 'more than' as the KJV suggests. This is replacement, not comparison. Paul breaks into a doxology ('who is blessed forever, Amen') — even in describing idolatry, he cannot mention the Creator without praising him.

Translator Notes

1. The second 'God gave them over' (paredōken). The third 'exchange' (metēllaxan) now applies to sexual practice. The phrase para physin ('contrary to nature') reflects Paul's understanding of the created order, drawing on both Jewish creation theology and Greco-Roman natural law concepts. The word thēleiai ('females') rather than gynaikes ('women') uses biological rather than social terminology, as does arsenes ('males') in verse 27.

Translator Notes

1. The verb exekauthēsan ('were inflamed, burned') denotes intense, consuming desire. The word aschēmosynēn ('shameless acts, indecency') is used in the Septuagint of Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13 for sexual prohibitions. The phrase antimisthian ('recompense, due penalty') suggests that the disordered desire is itself part of the judgment — the consequence is built into the act. Paul presents same-sex relations as symptomatic of the broader exchange of Creator for creature.
2. [TCR Cross-Reference] Draws on Leviticus 18:22. Consult the TCR rendering of that passage for the underlying Hebrew and the rationale for key translation choices.

Translator Notes

1. The third 'God gave them over' (paredōken). Paul employs a wordplay: they did not edokimasan ('approve, consider worthy') to acknowledge God, so God gave them over to an adokimon ('unapproved, debased, failing the test') mind. The same root (dokimos, 'tested, approved') appears in both, creating an ironic correspondence between human rejection and divine response.

Translator Notes

1. The vice list follows Greco-Roman rhetorical convention but is grounded in Paul's theological argument: the debased mind (v. 28) produces debased behavior. The Greek contains a wordplay between phthonou ('envy') and phonou ('murder') — the words differ by one letter, suggesting that envy and violence are closely linked. The SBLGNT does not include porneia ('fornication') which appears in some manuscripts reflected in the KJV.

Translator Notes

1. The word theostygeis ('God-haters') can also be rendered 'hateful to God' (passive rather than active), but the active sense fits Paul's argument better — those who refuse to acknowledge God develop active hostility toward him. The list moves from social vices to spiritual rebellion to family breakdown, suggesting that the corruption permeates every sphere.

Translator Notes

1. The four alpha-privative adjectives (a- prefix negating each quality) create a staccato rhetorical effect: asyne-tous, asyn-the-tous, a-storgous, an-eleēmonas. Each describes the absence of a basic human quality. Asynthetous ('faithless, covenant-breaking') is particularly significant in a letter about covenant faithfulness. Astorgous ('without natural affection') denotes the absence of storge, the instinctive family love.

Translator Notes

1. The climax of the argument: the deepest level of depravity is not merely doing evil but celebrating it in others. The word dikaiōma ('righteous decree, just requirement') shows that even in their rebellion, people retain knowledge of God's moral standard. Paul uses two different verbs for 'do' — prassō (habitual practice) and poieō (performing acts) — though the distinction may be stylistic rather than semantic here.