Romans 16 opens with a commendation of Phoebe, a deacon of the church at Cenchreae, and then unfolds the longest greeting list in any Pauline letter — naming twenty-six individuals and several households. The greetings reveal a remarkably diverse community: Jews and Gentiles, men and women, slaves and free, with women prominently featured in leadership roles. After the greetings, Paul inserts a sharp warning against those who cause divisions and put obstacles before the community, urging the Romans to avoid them. The letter closes with greetings from Paul's companions in Corinth and a grand doxology praising God who is able to strengthen the believers according to the revelation of the mystery now disclosed through the prophetic Scriptures to all nations.
What Makes This Chapter Remarkable
The greeting list is a goldmine for understanding the early Roman church. Women hold prominent roles: Phoebe is a diakonos ('deacon') and prostatis ('patron/benefactor'); Prisca is named before her husband Aquila (vv. 3-4), suggesting her greater prominence; Junia (v. 7) is described as 'outstanding among the apostles'; and Mary, Tryphaena, Tryphosa, and Persis are all commended for hard labor in the Lord. The diversity of names — Latin, Greek, and Jewish — reflects Rome's cosmopolitan character. Several names are attested in Roman inscriptions for imperial slaves and freedpersons, suggesting the church drew heavily from the slave and freed population.
Translation Friction
Romans 16:7 is a famous crux: is Iounian ('Junia') a woman's name or the contracted male form 'Junias'? The overwhelming scholarly consensus now identifies Junia as a woman, and 'outstanding among the apostles' (episēmoi en tois apostolois) as indicating she was an apostle, not merely known to the apostles. The doxology (vv. 25-27) poses a textual problem: some manuscripts place it after 14:23, others after 15:33, and some omit it entirely. Its Pauline authorship has been questioned, though its theology is consistent with Paul. The warning passage (vv. 17-20) is surprisingly harsh compared to the rest of the letter and may address a specific situation Paul has learned about.
Connections
Prisca and Aquila (v. 3) appear in Acts 18:2-3, 18:18-26, 1 Corinthians 16:19, and 2 Timothy 4:19. Epaenetus as the 'first convert in Asia' (v. 5) connects to Paul's Ephesian ministry (Acts 19). The 'crushing of Satan' language (v. 20) echoes Genesis 3:15. The 'mystery now revealed' theme of the doxology (vv. 25-26) parallels Colossians 1:26-27 and Ephesians 3:4-6. The phrase 'obedience of faith' (v. 26) forms an inclusio with 1:5, bracketing the entire letter.
I commend to you our sister Phoebe, who is a deacon of the church at Cenchreae,
KJV I commend unto you Phebe our sister, which is a servant of the church which is at Cenchrea:
Notes & Key Terms
1 term
Key Terms
διάκονονdiakonon
"deacon"—servant, minister, deacon, attendant
The word diakonos is the same term Paul uses for himself (2 Cor 3:6, 6:4) and for Timothy (1 Thess 3:2). When applied to male leaders, it is regularly translated 'minister' or 'deacon'; the same rendering should apply to Phoebe. The KJV's 'servant' understates her recognized office.
Translator Notes
Paul uses the formal verb synistēmi ('I commend, I introduce officially'), a technical term for letters of recommendation in the ancient world. Phoebe is likely the bearer of the letter to Rome. She is identified with the title diakonon ('deacon, minister') — the same word used for church officers in Philippians 1:1 and 1 Timothy 3:8-13. The church at Cenchreae was the port town east of Corinth, confirming Paul writes from the Corinthian area.
so that you may welcome her in the Lord in a manner worthy of the saints, and help her with whatever she may need from you, for she has been a patron and benefactor of many, and of myself as well.
KJV That ye receive her in the Lord, as becometh saints, and that ye assist her in whatsoever business she hath need of you: for she hath been a succourer of many, and of myself also.
Notes & Key Terms
1 term
Key Terms
προστάτιςprostatis
"patron and benefactor"—patron, protector, benefactor, leader, champion
The feminine form of prostatēs, a term with legal and social weight in the Greco-Roman world. A prostatis was a person of means and social standing who provided financial support and legal protection. The KJV's 'succourer' significantly weakens the term.
Translator Notes
Paul asks the Romans to welcome Phoebe axiōs tōn hagiōn ('in a manner worthy of the saints') and to assist her in whatever pragmati ('matter, business') she requires — she may be conducting personal or church business in Rome. The title prostatis ('patron, benefactor') indicates Phoebe was a woman of wealth and social standing who supported the church financially and perhaps legally. Paul himself benefited from her patronage.
Paul's term for his closest ministry partners (cf. Phil 4:3, Phlm 1, 24). The word implies shared labor, not subordination. Prisca is named first, as in most NT references to this couple.
Translator Notes
Prisca (the formal Latin name; Priscilla is the diminutive used in Acts) is named before Aquila in four of six NT references, suggesting her greater prominence in ministry. They were Jewish Christians expelled from Rome by Claudius's edict (Acts 18:2), met Paul in Corinth, moved to Ephesus (Acts 18:18-19, 1 Cor 16:19), and have now returned to Rome. Paul calls them synergous ('coworkers'), his highest term of commendation.
who risked their own necks for my life. Not only I give thanks to them, but so do all the churches of the Gentiles.
KJV Who have for my life laid down their own necks: unto whom not only I give thanks, but also all the churches of the Gentiles.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
The phrase ton heautōn trachēlon hypethēkan ('they placed their own neck under,' i.e., risked decapitation) refers to a specific life-threatening episode, possibly during the Ephesian crisis (Acts 19:23-41, cf. 1 Cor 15:32, 2 Cor 1:8-10). The gratitude extends beyond Paul to all the Gentile churches — Prisca and Aquila's service had wide impact.
Greet also the church that meets in their house. Greet my dear friend Epaenetus, who was the first convert to Christ in Asia.
KJV Likewise greet the church that is in their house. Salute my wellbeloved Epaenetus, who is the firstfruits of Achaia unto Christ.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Prisca and Aquila hosted a house church (kat' oikon ekklēsian) — as they also did in Ephesus (1 Cor 16:19). Early Christians had no dedicated buildings; worship met in private homes. Epaenetus is called aparchē tēs Asias ('firstfruit of Asia'), meaning the first convert in the Roman province of Asia (western Turkey). The SBLGNT reads 'Asia' rather than 'Achaia' (found in some MSS).
Romans 16:6
ἀσπάσασθε Μαρίαν, ἥτις πολλὰ ἐκοπίασεν εἰς ὑμᾶς.
Greet Mary, who has worked very hard for you.
KJV Greet Mary, who bestowed much labour on us.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Mary (Marian) is a Jewish name (Hebrew Miriam). The verb ekopiasen ('labored hard, toiled') is Paul's standard term for strenuous ministry work (cf. 1 Cor 15:10, Gal 4:11, Phil 2:16). The SBLGNT reads eis hymas ('for you,' i.e., for the Roman church) rather than eis hēmas ('for us').
Greet Andronicus and Junia, my fellow Jews and my fellow prisoners. They are outstanding among the apostles, and they were in Christ before I was.
KJV Salute Andronicus and Junia, my kinsmen, and my fellowprisoners, who are of note among the apostles, who also were in Christ before me.
Notes & Key Terms
2 terms
Key Terms
ἸουνίανIounian
"Junia"—Junia (feminine Latin name)
The accusative Iounian is the standard form of the common Latin woman's name Junia. The hypothetical male name 'Junias' (a contraction of Junianus) is unattested in ancient sources. Church fathers uniformly understood this as a woman: John Chrysostom wrote, 'How great is the devotion of this woman, that she should be counted worthy of the title of apostle.'
ἐπίσημοι ἐν τοῖς ἀποστόλοιςepisēmoi en tois apostolois
"outstanding among the apostles"—notable, prominent, distinguished among/in
The phrase most naturally means they are outstanding members within the group of apostles — not merely well-known to the apostles. This indicates a wider use of 'apostle' beyond the Twelve, including those who witnessed the risen Christ and were commissioned as missionaries.
Translator Notes
This verse is among the most discussed in Pauline studies. Andronicus and Junia are syngeneis ('fellow Jews, relatives') and synaichmalōtous ('fellow prisoners') — they shared imprisonment with Paul, though when and where is unknown. The identification of Junia as a woman is supported by the unanimous testimony of patristic commentators and by the fact that the male name 'Junias' does not exist in any ancient inscription or text. They became Christians before Paul (pro emou), placing their conversion in the earliest years of the church, possibly in Jerusalem.
Romans 16:8
ἀσπάσασθε Ἀμπλιᾶτον τὸν ἀγαπητόν μου ἐν κυρίῳ.
Greet Ampliatus, my dear friend in the Lord.
KJV Greet Amplias my beloved in the Lord.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Ampliatus (Ampliaton) is a common Latin slave name, attested frequently in inscriptions from the imperial household. The name appears in the catacomb of Domitilla in Rome in an elaborately decorated tomb, suggesting this early Christian of humble origin achieved honored status in the community.
Greet Urbanus, our coworker in Christ, and my dear friend Stachys.
KJV Salute Urbane, our helper in Christ, and Stachys my beloved.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Urbanus (Latin for 'city person') is another common slave name in Roman inscriptions. He is called synergon ('coworker'), Paul's term for ministry partners. Stachys (Greek for 'ear of grain') is a rare name but attested among members of the imperial household in Rome.
Greet Apelles, who is approved in Christ. Greet those who belong to the household of Aristobulus.
KJV Salute Apelles approved in Christ. Salute them which are of Aristobulus' household.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Apelles is called dokimon ('approved, tested and found genuine') — the same word used in 14:18 for the believer approved by God. The phrase tous ek tōn Aristoboulou ('those from [the household] of Aristobulus') likely refers to slaves or freedpersons of an Aristobulus who may not himself be a Christian. A possible identification is the grandson of Herod the Great who lived in Rome.
Greet my fellow Jew Herodion. Greet those in the household of Narcissus who are in the Lord.
KJV Salute Herodion my kinsman. Greet them that be of the household of Narcissus, which are in the Lord.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Herodion's name suggests a connection to the Herodian dynasty, possibly a freedman. He is syngenē mou ('my fellow Jew'). The household of Narcissus — specified as those who are en kyriō ('in the Lord'), indicating not all household members were Christians — may be the household of the famous freedman Narcissus who served under Emperor Claudius. After Narcissus's death, his slaves would have passed to the emperor.
Greet Tryphaena and Tryphosa, who labor in the Lord. Greet the dear Persis, who has worked hard in the Lord.
KJV Salute Tryphena and Tryphosa, who labour in the Lord. Salute the beloved Persis, which laboured much in the Lord.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Three more women commended for ministry labor. Tryphaena and Tryphosa (names derived from tryphē, 'daintiness') may be sisters or even twins — the pairing of similar names was common. Both are tas kopiōsas ('those laboring'), using the standard Pauline term for strenuous ministry. Persis (a name meaning 'Persian woman') receives the intensified commendation polla ekopiasen ('labored much'), with the past tense possibly indicating advanced age or a completed phase of work.
Greet Rufus, chosen in the Lord, and his mother, who has been a mother to me as well.
KJV Salute Rufus chosen in the Lord, and his mother and mine.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Rufus is ton eklekton en kyriō ('the chosen one in the Lord') — either a general description of all believers as 'elect' or a special commendation of Rufus as an outstanding Christian. Mark 15:21 identifies Simon of Cyrene as 'the father of Alexander and Rufus,' and if Mark's gospel was written for a Roman audience, this may be the same Rufus. Paul's description of Rufus's mother as kai emou ('and mine') indicates she had cared for Paul with maternal kindness.
Greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas, and the brothers and sisters who are with them.
KJV Salute Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brethren which are with them.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
These five names are all common slave or freedman names in Roman inscriptions. They are grouped together with 'the brothers who are with them' (tous syn autois adelphous), suggesting they form a distinct house church. The two names Hermēn and Herman (both derived from the god Hermes) indicate the prevalence of pagan theophoric names among early Christians of slave origin.
Give my greetings to Philologus and Julia, to Nereus and his sister, and to Olympas, along with all the believers who gather with them.
KJV Salute Philologus, and Julia, Nereus, and his sister, and Olympas, and all the saints which are with them.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Another cluster forming a probable second house church. Philologus and Julia may be husband and wife — both names are common among imperial slaves. Nereus is known from Roman mythology (a sea god), and the name appears in inscriptions of the imperial household. The unnamed sister of Nereus is one of several women whose contributions are acknowledged even without a name. Olympas may be a shortened form of Olympiodorus.
Greet one another with a holy kiss. All the churches of Christ send you greetings.
KJV Salute one another with an holy kiss. The churches of Christ salute you.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
The 'holy kiss' (philēmati hagiō) was a liturgical greeting in early Christian worship (cf. 1 Cor 16:20, 2 Cor 13:12, 1 Thess 5:26, 1 Pet 5:14). The claim that 'all the churches of Christ' (hai ekklēsiai pasai tou Christou) send greetings is bold — Paul speaks as the apostle to the Gentiles with authority to represent the wider church. This is the only time the phrase 'churches of Christ' appears in Paul.
I urge you, brothers and sisters, to watch out for those who cause divisions and create obstacles contrary to the teaching that you have learned. Avoid them.
KJV Now I beseech you, brethren, mark them which cause divisions and offences contrary to the doctrine which ye have learned; and avoid them.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
The warning is abrupt after the warm greetings — Paul shifts to urgent imperative. The verb skopein ('watch out for, keep your eye on') implies active vigilance. The troublemakers create dichostasias ('divisions, dissensions') and skandala ('stumbling blocks, traps') that contradict the teaching the Romans received. The identity of these opponents is debated — they may be Judaizers, libertines, or false teachers of another kind.
For such people do not serve our Lord Christ, but their own appetites, and by smooth talk and flattery they deceive the hearts of the unsuspecting.
KJV For they that are such serve not our Lord Jesus Christ, but their own belly; and by good words and fair speeches deceive the hearts of the simple.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
The phrase tē heautōn koilia ('their own belly') may be literal (gluttons who violate food ethics) or metaphorical (self-serving in general); cf. Philippians 3:19. The words chrēstologias ('smooth talk, fine-sounding speech') and eulogias ('flattery, pleasant words') describe persuasive rhetoric used to manipulate. The akakōn ('innocent, naive, unsuspecting') are the vulnerable members of the community who lack discernment.
For the report of your obedience has reached everyone. I rejoice over you, but I want you to be wise about what is good and innocent about what is evil.
KJV For your obedience is come abroad unto all men. I am glad therefore on your behalf: but yet I would have you wise unto that which is good, and simple concerning evil.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Paul balances his warning with affirmation: the Romans' obedience (hypakoē) is widely known (cf. 1:8). His desire that they be sophous eis to agathon ('wise toward the good') and akeriaous eis to kakon ('innocent toward evil') echoes Jesus' instruction to be 'wise as serpents and innocent as doves' (Matt 10:16). The word akeraious ('unmixed, pure, innocent') means untainted by evil, not naive about its existence.
The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet. The grace of our Lord Jesus be with you.
KJV And the God of peace shall bruise Satan under your feet shortly. The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you. Amen.
Notes & Key Terms
1 term
Key Terms
συντρίψειsyntripsei
"crush"—to crush, to shatter, to break in pieces
An allusion to Genesis 3:15 (the protoevangelium), where the seed of the woman will crush the serpent's head. Paul identifies the divisive teachers with satanic activity and promises their imminent defeat under the believers' feet.
Translator Notes
This verse combines a promise with a benediction. The phrase ho theos tēs eirēnēs ('the God of peace') appeared in 15:33. The crushing of Satan echoes Genesis 3:15 (LXX), where God promises that the woman's offspring will crush the serpent. The en tachei ('quickly, soon') expresses eschatological urgency. The SBLGNT omits the 'amen' found in some manuscripts after the grace benediction.
[TCR Cross-Reference] This verse quotes Genesis 3:15 — see the TCR rendering of that passage for the Hebrew source text and translation decisions.
Timothy, my coworker, sends greetings to you, as do Lucius and Jason and Sosipater, my fellow Jews.
KJV Timotheus my workfellow, and Lucius, and Jason, and Sosipater, my kinsmen, salute you.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
Timothy is Paul's most prominent coworker, co-sender of six letters. Lucius may be Lucius of Cyrene (Acts 13:1), though identification is uncertain. Jason is likely the Jason of Thessalonica who hosted Paul (Acts 17:5-9). Sosipater may be the Sopater of Beroea mentioned in Acts 20:4. All three are called syngeneis ('fellow Jews, kinsmen').
I, Tertius, the one who wrote this letter, greet you in the Lord.
KJV I Tertius, who wrote this epistle, salute you in the Lord.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
A rare moment where the secretary (amanuensis) identifies himself. Tertius physically wrote the letter at Paul's dictation — a common practice in antiquity (cf. Gal 6:11, where Paul notes his own handwriting). The Latin name Tertius ('third') is a common slave name. His personal greeting en kyriō ('in the Lord') identifies him as a fellow believer, not merely a hired scribe.
A civic office of considerable standing. An inscription from Corinth mentions an Erastus who laid a pavement at his own expense in return for his aedileship — possibly the same person, providing rare archaeological correlation with a NT figure.
Translator Notes
Gaius is Paul's host and host to holēs tēs ekklēsias ('the whole church'), indicating his house is the main meeting place in Corinth (likely the Gaius of 1 Cor 1:14). Erastus holds the office of oikonomos tēs poleōs ('city treasurer, city steward'), one of the highest-ranking Christians mentioned in the NT. An inscription found in Corinth reads 'Erastus in return for his aedileship laid [this pavement] at his own expense.' Quartus ('fourth') is another Latin numerical name, likely indicating slave origin.
The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with all of you. Amen.
KJV The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
This grace benediction is absent from many early manuscripts of the SBLGNT tradition and is bracketed or omitted in critical editions. Some scholars regard it as a scribal addition harmonizing with v. 20b. If original, it serves as a second closing blessing before the doxology. Its placement varies across manuscript families, reflecting the complex textual history of Romans 16.
Now to the one who is able to strengthen you according to my gospel and the proclamation of Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the mystery that was kept silent for long ages
KJV Now to him that is of power to stablish you according to my gospel, and the preaching of Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the mystery, which was kept secret since the world began,
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
The doxology (vv. 25-27) is one of the most debated textual issues in Paul's letters. Some manuscripts place it after 14:23, others here, others in both locations, and some omit it. Its vocabulary has affinities with Colossians and Ephesians, leading some scholars to question Pauline authorship, though its themes are thoroughly Pauline. The phrase to euangelion mou ('my gospel') is characteristically Pauline (2:16, 2 Tim 2:8). The mystērion ('mystery') is not esoteric knowledge but God's previously hidden plan now revealed.
but now disclosed and made known through the prophetic Scriptures, according to the command of the eternal God, to bring about the obedience of faith among all the nations —
KJV But now is made manifest, and by the scriptures of the prophets, according to the commandment of the everlasting God, made known to all nations for the obedience of faith:
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
The mystery, once hidden, is now phanerōthentos ('made manifest, disclosed'). The means of disclosure is dia graphōn prophētikōn ('through the prophetic Scriptures') — the OT writings, now read in light of Christ. The phrase eis hypakoēn pisteōs ('for the obedience of faith') forms an inclusio with 1:5, bracketing the entire letter. The goal is universal: eis panta ta ethnē ('to all the nations').
to the only wise God, through Jesus Christ, be glory forever. Amen.
KJV To God only wise, be glory through Jesus Christ for ever. Amen.
Notes & Key Terms
Translator Notes
The doxology reaches its climax: monō sophō theō ('to the only wise God') echoes 11:33-36 and Jewish liturgical formulations. The mediation of Jesus Christ (dia Iēsou Christou) is characteristic of Paul's theology — glory reaches God through Christ. The relative pronoun hō ('to whom') creates a grammatical ambiguity: does glory go to God or to Christ? The overall structure directs it to God through Christ. The final 'amen' seals the entire letter as an act of worship, concluding Paul's most systematic theological work.