Targumim
Aramaic interpretive translations used in synagogue worship (1st c. BCE – 5th c. CE)
About the Targumim
The Targumim are Aramaic interpretive translations of the Hebrew Bible, produced for communities that spoke Aramaic rather than Hebrew. They are not literal translations but theological paraphrases that systematically reshape the text — guarding divine transcendence (anti-anthropomorphism), introducing the Memra ("Word") as an intermediary, and developing Messianic readings of key passages.
Targum Onkelos covers the Torah (Pentateuch) and is the most literal of the major targumim. Targum Jonathan covers the Prophets (Nevi'im) and is more expansive and theologically interpretive, with dense Messianic and Shekinah theology.
Targum Onkelos — Torah (176 renderings)
Targum Onkelos on Genesis is the most literal of the Palestinian-Babylonian targum traditions, yet still reshapes the text at critical theological junctures. The creation narrative, patriarchal encounters with God, and the blessings of Jacob all receive careful interpretive adjustment to guard divine transcendence while preserving covenantal intimacy.
Targum Onkelos on Exodus shapes the narrative of redemption through consistent theological lenses: the Memra initiates and executes liberation, anti-anthropomorphism governs all theophanies (burning bush, Sinai, the cleft of the rock), and Shekinah language defines God's dwelling among Israel. The Poem of Four Nights at Exodus 12:42 is a unique targum composition linking creation, Abraham, Exodus, and Messiah.
Targum Onkelos on Leviticus addresses the sacrificial and purity systems with attention to anti-anthropomorphism (God does not 'smell' offerings), Shekinah theology (the divine presence sanctifies and inhabits the Tabernacle), and halakhic clarification. Because Leviticus is primarily legal material, Onkelos' interpretive activity focuses on cultic language, divine speech formulas, and the Holiness Code's promise of divine indwelling.
Targum Onkelos on Numbers navigates the wilderness narrative with characteristic theological care. The Aaronic Blessing (6:24-26) receives significant Memra and Shekinah treatment. Balaam's oracles contain the most important Messianic readings in the Pentateuch outside Genesis 49. The narrative of God's anger, the rebellion accounts, and the bronze serpent all receive anti-anthropomorphic adjustment.
Targum Onkelos on Deuteronomy addresses Moses' farewell speeches with the full range of its theological toolkit. The Shema (6:4) is rendered with minimal adjustment, while the Song of Moses (ch. 32) and the Blessing of Moses (ch. 33) receive rich Messianic and Shekinah treatment. Deuteronomy's repeated call to love, fear, and obey God is rendered through Memra and Shekinah language. The centralization of worship ('the place which the LORD will choose') reinforces Shekinah theology.
Targum Jonathan — Prophets (153 renderings)
Targum Jonathan on Isaiah is the richest book in the entire targum corpus for Messianic theology. The Servant Songs are explicitly identified as Messianic, the throne names of Isaiah 9:6 are given royal-Messianic interpretation, and Isaiah 52:13-53:12 — the Suffering Servant — is dramatically reinterpreted so that the Messiah conquers rather than suffers. Anti-anthropomorphism governs the throne vision of chapter 6. The eschatological visions of chapters 2, 11, 24-27, and 40-66 receive extensive theological expansion.
Targum Jonathan on Jeremiah navigates the tension between divine judgment and covenant faithfulness. The new covenant prophecy (31:31-34) is rendered with striking literalism. Anti-anthropomorphism governs descriptions of God's emotional response to Israel's unfaithfulness (anger, grief, jealousy). The Messianic 'Branch' passages (23:5, 33:15) receive explicit identification. The Memra functions as the agent of both judgment and future restoration.
Targum Jonathan on Ezekiel confronts the most dramatic theophanies in prophetic literature: the Merkavah (chariot-throne) vision of chapter 1, the Shekinah departure in chapters 10-11, and the Shekinah return in chapters 43-48. The targum applies maximal anti-anthropomorphism to the throne vision while developing rich Shekinah theology around the Temple. The valley of dry bones (ch. 37) receives eschatological interpretation, and the Davidic shepherd prophecy is rendered with Messianic specificity.
Targum Jonathan on the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) is more expansive than Onkelos, offering interpretive paraphrases, theological commentary, and narrative expansion. The Memra, Shekinah, and anti-anthropomorphic patterns continue, but Jonathan adds historical identifications, moral commentary, and eschatological readings not found in Onkelos.
Targum Jonathan on the Twelve Minor Prophets extends the theological patterns of the Latter Prophets into the shorter prophetic books. Messianic readings surface at strategic points: Micah 5:2 (the Messiah from Bethlehem), Zechariah 3:8 (the Messiah as Branch), Zechariah 6:12 (the Messiah who builds the Temple), and Zechariah 9:9 (the humble king). Anti-anthropomorphism governs theophanic passages in Hosea, Joel, Habakkuk, and Malachi. The Day of the LORD prophecies receive eschatological sharpening.